Critically evaluate Althussers and Marcuses critiques of capitalism Essay

Critically evaluate Althussers and Marcuses critiques of capitalism - Essay Example Althusser advanced a progressive critique of humanism, historicism, and empiricism, which he depicted as the medium of the influence of bourgeoisie ideology on the modern Marxist theory. Althusser’s collection of essays titled Pour Marx (1965) and Lire de Capital (1965) inspired a number of new left thinkers. He focused on the mature Marx as exhibited by his analysis of alienation in the capitalist society. The essays represented intellectually hard-line Marxism but not dogmatism. Althusser attempted to employ Marx’s tools such as mode and means of production to probe the production of Marxian knowledge and highlight its uniqueness from other philosophical systems. This aided in promoting the credibility of Marxism as a science. Althusser confronted contemporary softer interpretations of Marx’s work. In particular, he sought to reread Western Marxist theory and free it from Soviet dogmatism, as well as humanistic interpretations (Michael 2011, p.134). Meanwhile, he wanted to reinstate their pace in the class struggle. Pour Marx is considered as the founding text of the school of structuralism in Marxism. Although he refused to be labeled as a structuralist, he used structuralism to abolish the â€Å"knowing subject† as the centre of thought and action. According to Althusser, Marxism is not an ideology or a world view but a revolutionary science. He holds that Marxism should ultimately be the science of society. He claimed that Marx had introduced a theoretically plus practically revolutionary philosophy such as dialectical materialism (Ferretter 2006, p.32). According to Althusser, the â€Å"epistemological rupture† witnessed around 1845, climaxed Marx coming out as a ‘scientific’ theorist. Althusser wanted to sever ties from idealist (Hegel’s philosophy) and materialist (Feuerbachian) philosophies. Althusser adopted the method of â€Å"symptomatic reading,† which is a deep analysis of structures

Pathogenic and non pathogenic microorganism Research Paper

Pathogenic and non pathogenic microorganism - Research Paper Example Nonpathogenic organisms are organisms that do not cause disease to hosts with normal defense capacity. However, most non-pathogenic bacteria tend to be opportunistic in that they can cause diseases if the host defense mechanisms or defense in insufficient or compromised. The Session Long Project will discuss Escherichia coli (E. coli) as the non-pathogenic bacteria and Mycobacterium tuberculosis as the pathogenic microorganism. I choose E. coli because it is one of the most common bacteria found in humans. On the other hand, I choose Mycobacterium tuberculosis since it is a pathogenic bacteria that causes tuberculosis, which is a common opportunistic disease in immune-depressed disease. However, the causative agent is considered pathogenic. Moreover, tuberculosis causes several case of death especially in third world countries. E. coli is a common type of bacteria that is found in the human gut but is generally non-pathogenic. The bacterium is found as normal intestinal or bowel flora and has numerous strains. Moreover, Escherichia coli in the human intestines act as a source of Vitamin B complex and Vitamin K. The bacterial inhabits different regions of the body such as the lower and upper respiratory tract and the intestines where it is harmless. However, E. coli become harmful if it enters the blood system (Grover-Lakomia & Fong, 1998). Moreover, in immune-compromised individuals, E. coli is capable of producing toxics, which are harmful to humans. The bacterium is also harmful if taken from foods or contaminated water. Although cases of E. coli poisoning are rare, successful control of the pathogen poisoning would still be considered a significant accomplishment in the field of microbiology and public health (Funnell, Koutoukidis, & Lawrence, 2008; Grover-Lakomia & Fong, 1998) Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a non-motile, rod shaped bacterium, which causes tuberculosis.

Things Fall Apart Novel Analysis Essay Example for Free

Things Fall Apart Novel Analysis Essay 1. Title: The title of the novel is Things Fall Apart. The title gives foreshadowing details of the book. Things falling apart is a common theme through the entire novel. At the beginning, Okonkwo is the one of the most famous in his village because he threw The Cat in wrestling. Though, at the end Okonkwo commits the worst disgrace possible, he kills himself. The title also describes what happens to the tribes religion. As Western Civilization begins to colonize the African tribes, the Africans culture diminishes. Soon many Africans have left their own religion and gods to become Christians. Many of the Africans lose their own values and begin to value the customs of Western culture. The title is also very simple and mysterious. Other books titles are normally an object or saying from the book, but Things Fall Apart is never talked about or brought up in the novel. The reader is forced to wonder what falls apart or what this title has to do with the book. Things Fall Apart is basically the center of the story. Achebe took the title of his book from The Second Coming (wr. 1919; pub. 1921), by William Butler Yeats (1865-1939; Irish). The poem is very similar to Okonkwos life and it makes sense that Achebe would use the line Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; (Yeat 3). Okonkwo is too high in power and wealth and he cant hold those things forever. He begins to lose everything that he has worked so hard to have. He first loses Ikemefuna and becomes depressed and angry, and then he gets exiled to another village after killing a man on accident. Nwoye leaves him after to become a member of the church and after coming back to Umuofia, he kills a representative for the Missionary and kills himself out of fear. As it says in the poem, Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; Okonkwo cant hold forever, so Things Fall Apart. 2. Biographical Sketch: Chinua Achebe or, Albert Chinualumogu Achebe, was born November 16th, 1930 in Ogidi, Nigeria. His father, Isaiah, was a Protestant teacher in a missionary school. Chinua was raised religious which probably gave him the idea of the white men converting the Villages many religions. Achebe attended University in Ibadan to 1953 and received a B.A. in English from the University of London. Originally, Achebe studied Medicine but it became too hard and he switched to English. If Achebe had not switched to majoring in English, we would probably not have his literary works. A friend later convinced him to teach English and the school he taught at was built on land where the locals believed the spirits were unfriendly. This is how Achebe found the idea of the Evil Forest from Things Fall Apart. Things fall apart was published in 1958. The novel was influenced by Achebes early life, including the dilemmas of religion and culture shift in Africa. His first book was an instant success and was even turned into a play. Many authors do not become a successful, famous writer on their first, second or even third book, Achebe did. He married Christie Okoli and had four children together as he continued to write books. Other novels include No Longer at ease (1960), Arrow of God (1966) and Anthills of the Savanna (1987). On Achebes sixtieth birthday, he was in a car accident and his legs are now paralyzed. Achebe is now 79 years old and teaching at Bard College in New York. Chinua Achebe has become one of the most influential writers in Africa. His novels have become accepted in Western Culture without his writing being influenced with the trends of western culture. Achebe will be one of the classic African writers forever. 3. Themes: A major theme in Things Fall Apart is things fall apart. As previously talked apart, one of the major conflicts with Okonkwos life is everything around is falling apart. Okonkwo was clearly cut for great things. He was still young but he had won fame as the greatest wrestler in the nine villages. He was a wealthy farmer and had two barns full of yams, and had just married his third wife.(Achebe 8) This is taken from the first chapter of the book. Okonkwos life could not get any better; he had the successful farm, wives and children but as his years progress, he loses a lot of that wealth. By the last chapter of the novel, Okonkwo has lost his first born son Nwoye, his religion, and his village. Okonkwo has even committed suicide, an act considered to be an abomination in his village; he cannot even be properly buried. The theme of things falling apart reoccurs throughout the entire book. Another theme in Things Fall Apart is the problem of Western colonization. During Okonkwos exile, rumors begin to spread of these white people on iron horses and the destruction they caused in another village. Finally white people come to the other villages to build churches and try to get others to follow their strange religion. Western colonization is has its pros and cons. For example, without colonization, some people wouldnt be able to enjoy the comforts we have today. But Western colonization also destroys ethnic cultures. In the novel, many people begin to follow this taboo religion which divides the village into old and new culture. This division creates a separation between the people and causes a lot of animosity between both sides. Okonkwo loses his son to the Christian religion and he feels like Nwoye is a trader to him and his village. The problem of Western colonization begins in Chapter 15 and continues to the end of the novel. Masculinity is a primary theme for the main character. Okonkwo constantly talks about masculinity and how important it is to be masculine. To him, something is either feminine or masculine, and if it feminine he does not do it. This condescending sexist attitude affects his relationships with people too. He does not like to be associated with anyone slightly considered effeminate. This theme easily translates to our world too. Many men consider things to be too effeminate and will not be involved with these activities. Men are either too proud or not comfortable with themselves to break out of the classic masculine stereotype. Okonkwo has this same problem and he has to be doing masculine things or else he feels like a woman (which is not a bad thing). His masculine character is responsible for many of his actions in the novel. We see this theme reappear constantly throughout the novel. 4. Narrative Style: The book is written in third person. The narrator does not seem fully limited or fully omniscient either. They never explain what is going on inside a characters head but they know things that someone with a limited view would not know. An example of this is in this quote, He woke up once in the middle of the night and his mind went back to the past three days without making him feel uneasy (Achebe 75) The narrator knows what is in Okonkwos mind but doesnt tell the audience what hes words are in his mind. This shows the narrator either is really good at picking up on a peoples emotions and actions (limited) or knows what is in a characters mind but doesnt share it with the reader (omniscient). The narrative style adds to the reading because the constant foreshadowing and unknowing future causes the reader to be enveloped into this foreign world. Each page causes the reader to wonder what else will happen to Okonkwo and what will become of his future? The third person detail makes the reader feel like they are watching the story from above. This Narrative style adds a god-like feel to the book and gives us descriptions to make a movie of the book in our mind. 5. Main Characters: Okonkwo, the central character, tall, bushy eyebrows, lean and walks quietly and has a very quick temper. Okonkwo is in the story because it is his life that falls apart. Nwoye, Okonkwos son who is very similar to Okonkwos father, he likes to play, tell folk stories and be marry. He is the one that causes Okonkwos worrying, Okonkwo is constantly concerned that Nwoye will not be a man like he is. Ikemefuna, a boy from a neighboring village is given to Okonkwo to take care of. Ikemefuna becomes a part of Okonkwos clan; he works hard and shows the qualities of a real man. His masculinity rubs off on Nwoye which causes Okonkwo to become even fonder of him. When Okonkwo takes part in Ikemefunas murder, Nwoyes relationship changes with his father and it causes him to become Christian later on. Ikemefuna is not in the entire novel but he must be considered a main character because his death is the beginning of the downward spiral for Okonkwo. Mr. Brown is one of the first Christian missionaries to come to the Ibo Villages. His is a very nice man, very Christian-like. He helps convert many of the villagers. Nwoye is with him now in the missionary and has left his dad to become part of the Church. Minor Characters: Unoka, Okonkwos Father who is lazy and a debtor. His troubles cause Okonkwo to become so work driven and masculine. Ezinma, Okonkwos daughter, is also the only child of Ekwefi. Okonkwo often wishes Ezinma was a man. Ekwefi, Ezinmas mother is constantly worried about losing her only child because she has had miscarriage many of times. The bond between her and Ezinma is very strong and she treats Ezinma with rare foods like eggs that are meant for special occasions. She is the second wife of Okonkwo. Priestess or Chielo, the Oracle of the Hills and Caves is around a lot but as two different people. During the day she is around the village as Chielo and is one of the normal women. She goes to the market and events in the village but at night she becomes the Oracle of the Hills and Caves and its like she is taken over by another power. She taught Ekwefi a lesson about being too close with her child and she is also a representative for the Gods. Reverend James Smith, very mean and strict replacement for Mr. Brown. He causes much grief throughout the village and causes many problems with the people of Umuofia. Okonkwo kills himself because of Smiths actions. The District Commissioner, he appears at the end of the novel and doesnt really know about the customs of the people. He summarizes the entire novel from a westerners point-of-view. 6. Symbols: 1. Yams- Yams in Things Fall Apart were a very big deal to Okonkwo. The yams symbolized what Okonkwo wanted the most for his family, masculinity. Yams were a job for men only; women could grow other fruits or vegetables but yams were what real men grew because they required hard work. Yam didnt just symbolize a mans masculinity but they also provided food and an income. The Yams were what Okonkwo wanted the most for his family and it was what he grew the most of. 2. Locusts- The locusts in Things Fall Apart symbolized something new coming. In the book, it was said the locusts only visited the Umuofia only once a generation. While the locusts excited everyone, they soon became a pain and brought something else with them, death. Ikemefuna was sacrificed by the Umuofia to get rid of these locusts. Locusts could also represent Western culture because everyone is excited to see white people at first, but soon they become annoying and bring death to others including Okonkwo. 3. Christianity- Christianity represents the truth. Umuofia reacts harshly to the idea of a different religion. Many say that Ignorance is bliss. (Thomas Gray Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College) and the villagers, including Okonkwo, dont want to hear the truth. This can be compared to people today who do not what to hear the truth either. For example, those who belive global warming is not occurring or that President Obama is not a United States Citizen. No matter what era, people are not going to want to hear the truth. 4. Art- Art represents femininity. Okonkwo could not stand any type of art; to him, it is for women. He hates his dad because he was musical; he wishes also his son was more masculine when Nwoye tells folktales or legends. 5. Evil Forest- the Evil Forest represents the superstitions and fears. In the book, many things that people felt were taboo were put into the evil forest out of fear. Achebe chose all of these symbols because they can be related to our own life in western civilization. Each is a symbolic representation of what we go through every day. 7. Setting: There are many different settings in the novel. The main setting is in a village in Africa named Umuofia. The time period was in beginning of the 1900s before western civilization had really explored Africa and other foreign Countries. Umuofia has many huts scattered and farms growing vegetables, like yams. The people of Umuofia are very strong and cultural people. They stayed with the customs their ancestors high regarded like the nobility of taking titles that select few could get or the respect of their gods. When Okonkwo accidentally kills another member of the tribe, he is exiled from Umuofia for 7 years. Okonkwo moves to the village where his mom was raised, Mbanta. After his exile was over, Okonkwo moved back to a very different Umuofia. The missionary had become a big part of the town. They even built a school and hospital. With trade going in and out of Umuofia, the town became bigger and wealthier. A court system also put in place at Umuofia and it is run by the missionaries. The setting of Umuofia changes from the beginning to the end due to the missionaries colonizing. 8. Plot: A. opening incident: The first incident occurs when all the men in Umuofia are called to the marketplace for a meeting. One of the villages killed a mans wife from Umuofia. To prevent war the village provided the man, Udo, with a virgin to take for a wife and also gave a boy named, Ikemefuna. The boy was chose to live with Okonkwo until they found what to do with the boy. B. building incident a: Years after, Ikemefuna has become a part of Okonkwos clan. Hes become best friends with Nwoye, his son, and helps with the crops. Locusts invade the town and the locusts are everywhere. To get rid of these locusts, Ikemefuna must be sacrificed. Okonkwo is warned not to see him sacrificed but he still goes. Once in the forest, one of the men slashes Ikemefuna with a machete and he falls in pain screaming. Okonkwo instinctively slabs Ikemefuna and kills him. building incident b: After being exiled, Okonkwo hears rumors of white men in nearby villages. Soon after, white men are in their town building a church for the people of the village. The men of this strange religion begin to convert people in town with their folktale stories about their religion. Okonkwo finds this religion strange because they only worship one god who has very strange qualities. C. climax: The climax of the story occurs when Okonkwo and a few others are thrown in jail for burning down the Christian church in the village. Okonkwo and his friends are tied up, beaten and made fun of for believing in their gods. After returning to the village, there is a meeting with all of the villages and soon representatives from the Christians come to disperse the crowd. With Okonkwos fierce temper, he loses his control and he kills one of the messengers. During the chaos that followed, Okonkwo slipped away and went home. D. resolution: The District Commissioner goes to Okonkwos home. He finds Okonkwos body hanging from a tree. Okonkwo committed suicide by hanging himself. The District Commissioner decides to put this in his book The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger. Okonkwo has gone from great man to a chapter in a book about Primitive Tribes. 9. Quotations: 1. Okonkwo was clearly cut for great things (Achebe 8) In this quote, the narrator tells the reader that Okonkwo is clearly made to achieve great things in life. This is a quote from the first chapter, where Okonkwo is at his success peak in life. This quote is important in the book because Okonkwo is so proud of these great things hes already accomplished in life that it leads to his downfall. He was made to accomplish more things in his life but his pride in his masculinity causes his doom. 2. But he was always uncomfortable sitting around for days waiting for a feast or getting over it. He would be much happier working on his farm. (Achebe 37) This quote is shows a part of Okonkwos personality. He would rather work than relax so he can accomplish more things. He feels like resting is feminine so he does not feel comfortable being comfortable. 3. I am worried about Nwoye. A bowl of pounded yams can thrown him in a wrestling match. His two younger brothers are more promising. (Achebe 66) Okonkwo is primarily concerned with his boys masculinity. Again we see Okonkwos stereotypical position about men being masculine and females being feminine. Yams are a symbol of masculinity and Okonkwo compares Nwoye to them. He is basically saying that Nwoye is not manly enough. This constant worrying about Nwoye being masculine is what drives Nwoye away from his father and to the Christian religion. 4. A sudden fury rose within him and he felt a strong desire to take up his machete, go to the church and wipeout the entire vile and miscreant gang. (Achebe 152) In the quote, Okonkwo is showing his sudden anger. This rage he has is often what causes him to get in dilemmas constantly. In the end, this sudden rage he has is what causes him to commit suicide at the end of the novel. 5. He had already chosen the title of the book, after much thought: The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger (Achebe 209). The title of the book in quote is what Okonkwos life could be summarized as from a Westerners point of view. As someone reads Things Fall Apart, they become a part of the story but if the reader steps away from the book and looks at this title, it all makes sense. This is the last sentence in the novel which makes it even more fitting because it shows how the colonization in Africa has destroyed the African culture and the foreigners do not really care what they have done. In fact, those who colonized Africa find themselves to be heroes because they saved the Niger villages from Hell and allowed them to go to Heaven. 10. Additional Comments: I found the book to be very interesting because it broke away from the somewhat normal books we read in school. Thing Fall Apart was an actual world literature instead of the books that are set in western civilization. Achebe made this book so we could see the antagonists we have become, as a culture, to those in foreign countries. As Americans, we normally think that were saving these people in other cultures or that were doing more good than harm. But with this novel, it shows that colonizing foreign counties is destroying other cultures rather than helping them. As I read this book, I continued to say, Wow, this book is pretty tribal but its actually quite opposite. The people in Umuofia were less tribal before the westerners came. With the colonization it made many of the villagers do things they would never do; like kill a sacred object or burn a building down because of hate. The ending is also very surprising to me. Seeing how the District Commissioner saw the African tribes, I would have seen the tribes the same way if I saw the story from a missionarys point of view. You dont truly see how another culture is until you see it from their eyes and I think Achebe accomplished that very well. He made it possible for the reader to experience the culture of African tribes in the early 1900s and be able to relate this foreign culture to their daily lives. We can take an example or a theme that the Africans had to deal with and use it in our daily lives. I found the theme of masculinity to be the most relatable for any high school boy. Achebe also showed that no matter the time or place, humans will still have things in common. Even though we are in separate countries, environments and times, we still have the same human elements, like emotions, in common. Works Cited Chinua Achebe: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinua_Achebe#Anthills_and_paralysis Chinua Achebe: http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/achebe.htm Chinua Achebe: http://www.postcolonialweb.org/achebe/achebebio.html Chinua Achebe: http://www.notablebiographies.com/A-An/Achebe-Chinua.html

Duty To Protect Vs. Duty To Warn When Dealing With Dangerous Clients

Duty To Protect Vs. Duty To Warn When Dealing With Dangerous Clients Nearly every mental health professional has faced the difficult task of having a client at one time or another that may pose a danger to themselves or someone else. This situation can present a conflict at times for therapists and others who are torn between preserving client confidentiality and protecting others from potential harm. Fortunately, there are legal procedures in place for dealing with this kind of dilemma. The downside to this, however, is that the legal guidelines are not always the same in each jurisdiction. Being aware of the specific methods for and legal obligations for dealing with these kinds of situations within each specific state is the responsibility of the practitioner, and can be difficult for therapists who may practice in more than one state or who relocate their offices from one state to another after a period of time. However, knowing a little bit of background about the duty to warn and the duty to protect and the cases that led to the imposition of these legal duties can help guide therapists and other mental health professionals in implementing ethical strategies for dealing with these kinds of circumstances. The legal concepts of duty to warn and duty to protect were first introduced in 1976, with the case of Tarasoff V. Regents of the University of California. This case established that therapists are obligated to inform an identified third party of potential danger if a client indicates that he or she may harm another individual. However, a large number of states also have a strict set of guidelines for executing the duty to warn in that there must be evidence of the possibility of serious danger or harm, the harm is very likely to occur, and that the targeted individual has been clearly identified. While the duty to warn refers specifically to notifying a potential third party of the imminent danger or harm, the duty to protect has broader implications. With the duty of protect, which is an option only in some states or jurisdictions, the therapist still has the legal obligation to protect a third party from danger but can do so through a variety of options such as hospitalization, more rigorous outpatient therapy, or other methods of intervention that still enable the therapist to maintain client confidentiality. While the duty to protect is a preferred method of dealing with these kinds of situations among mental health care professionals, this form of legislation is only in place in 24 states, with an additional nine states operating under this duty due to imposed court decisions in district or regional court systems. Exceptions to the duty to warn can be seen in a number of instances when the general public is concerned. In most situations, therapists are under no obligation to warn the general public about the risk of danger from one individual, even if a threat is noted. The implications of this exception are particularly of importance when it comes to the threat of transmission of HIV and other contractible diseases. In most states it is already illegal to knowingly infect another person or group of people with HIV. However, therapists are not legally obligated, and even discouraged from, warning the general public about the risk of transmission of HIV from a knowingly infected client. In this instance, client rights and confidentiality would prevail. Another instance where the duty to warn and the duty to protect are of importance is when it comes to the threat of child abuse. In many states, therapists and other professionals are obligated to report when a child may be in danger or is being harmed, often without regard to client confidentiality or an obligation to further provide additional intervention or treatment to the client. However, the problem that is seen in many states or situations is that there are no clearly defined guidelines as to how severe the harm has to be in order for a therapist to breach confidentiality. While most legislation specifies that there must be a â€Å"clear and immediate danger,† the definition of this can be construed differently by many people and at different times. For example, spanking could be perceived as some to be a â€Å"clear and immediate danger† to children, while to others, the threat would have to be much more severe in order to violate client confidentiality in favo r of protecting a child. While it is clear that there are many legal obligations that therapists have to warn others about potential dangers and to protect clients and others from harm when the need arises, the difficulty in executing many of these duties often lies in ambiguous guidelines in many jurisdictions. Often, it is an ethical decision that each individual practitioner must make based on their own principles, the laws within their specific jurisdiction, and their perception of the way the law is defined and the specific situation.

A Separate Peace Book Analysis Essay -- fear, john knowles, finny

In A Separate Peace by John Knowles, Gene, Finny, and Leper fear recognizing their own flaws and learning about the harsh realities of a world at war because it affects their decision making causing them to make poor decisions, such as severely hurting one another, more frequently. Fear surrounds Gene during his time at the Devon school, affecting how he feels towards others as well as how well he trusts others. The fear isolates Gene from his friends and makes him, both, become weary of the evils around him as well as make him see other irrelevant evils. â€Å"Preserved along with it, like stale air in an unopened room, was the well known fear which had surrounded and filled those days, so much of it that I hadn't even known it was there. Because, unfamiliar with the absence of fear and what that was like, I had not been able to identify its presence,† (Chapter 1). Gene, after returning to the devon school, finds the atmosphere unchanged and still riddled with fear. He is reminded of the fear he felt during his days at the school because, while he attended Devon, World War II was taking place and 17 year-old Gene who was a year away from being drafted feared going off to war. â€Å"I felt fear's echo, and along with that I felt the unhinged, uncontrollable joy which had been its accompaniment and opposite face, joy which had broken out sometimes in those days like Northern Lights across black sky,† (Chapter 1). Surrounded by fear, Gene is trying to find some sort of source of joy. He needs this joy to uplift him because, without it, the terrors surrounding him, such as the war, emotional struggles, and personal rivalries, could drive him insane. â€Å"Any fear I had ever had of the tree was nothing beside this. It wasn't my neck, bu... ...imum standard of the army. I did not know everything there was to know about myself, and knew that I did not know it; I wondered in the silences between jokes about Leper whether the still hidden parts of myself might contain the Sad Sack, the outcast, or the coward. We were all at our funniest about Leper, and we all secretly hoped that Leper, that incompetent, was as heroic as we said,† (Chapter 9). Leper goes mad and â€Å"abandons ship† does not bode well for the boys. "That was when things began to change. One day I couldn't make out what was happening to the corporal's face. It kept changing into faces I knew from somewhere else, and then I began to think he looked like me," (Chapter 10). Leper's visions portray a fear of changing identity. He is afraid of letting the war change him into a different person, which greatens his fear of joining the war effort.

Roles of Gladiators in Roman Society

Gladiators were mostly unfree individuals either condemned criminals, prisoners of wars who had lost their citizenship rights, although, some of them were volunteers who were mostly freedmen or very low classes of freeborn men who chose to be a slave for monetary rewards or for the fame. Gladiators were brought for the purpose of gladiatorial combat and would endure branding, chains, flogging or death by the sword and subjected to a rigorous training, fed on a high-energy diet, and given expert medical attention.Gladiators were famously popular in ancient from for seven centuries, from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD fairly late in the Public occupied a prominent position in roman society, they would fight in massive amphitheatres, the most famous being the Colosseum in Rome. The games slowly transformed into spectator, a form of public execution and was seen by the public as entertainment in simpler, rougher times. It escalated as the Romans valued the art of killing and ac ted as a distraction for its citizens, allowed them to release their violent impulses and aggression within a completely separate social realm.We can assume that there were gladiatorial fights before this in Rome but were not recorded and the tradition of gladiatorial combats did not evolve in Rome but considered to have come from the Etruscans. The first recorded gladiatorial fight was in Rome during 264 BC at the funeral of Decimus Iunius Brutus Pera and was organised by his sons to pay honour to their deceased father. Three pairs of gladiators fought against each other to the death at his funeral pyre. It was believed that the ritually shed blood reconciled the dead with the living.We can assume that there were gladiatorial fights before this in Rome, but were not recorded and the tradition of gladiatorial combats did not evolve in Rome but considered to have come from the Etruscans. In Tomb 7 of the necropolis Gaudo near Paestum shows fighting between two men wearing attic helme ts of South-Italian type, armour and shields attacking each other with spears. This painting could depict the early types of gladiators and provides evidence that suggest Campania may be the origins of gladiators since the first amphitheatre was built there.Also, the historians Livius, Strabo and Silius Italicus state that at Campanian banquets gladiators fought to entertain the evening party. Gladiators were formed into troupes called â€Å"Familia gladiatorium† and owned by a person called Ianista who recruited, arranged for training and made decisions of where and when the gladiators fought. The gladiators were first asses by a Lanista, a doctor and gladiator trainers when entering gladiator school to commence training. Gladiator trainers who worked in schools were often retired gladiators who specialised in specific combat styles and weapons.There were different types of gladiators who focussed on different fighting styles and weapons that suited them. For example, those who fought in heavy armour weighed them down and were slower which made them require different techniques, while gladiators in light armour were fast and light. The gladiators did not wear Roman military amour since it would send the wrong political signal to the people. Instead they used the weaponry of non-Roman people, to play the role of the enemies. A wooden pole called a palus was used to practice moves with a sword, it allowed a gladiator o practise various strokes such as thrusting, cutting, and slicing.Trained gladiators had the possibility of surviving and even thriving. Some gladiators did not fight more than two or three times a year, and the best of them became popular heroes. After each fight they were paid, plus donations from the crowd and if he was able to outlive his opponents in the arena for 5 years, he would be free and granted citizenship which he could then become a gladiator trainer or a freelance bodyguard. Gladiators were distinguished by the kind of armour they wore, the weapon they use and they style of fighting.Usually gladiators stayed in one category, and matches were played so that they were 2 different categories of gladiators. Some classes are the Eques began their matches on horseback, but ended in hand-to-hand combat. They wore tunics, bronze helmets, round shields and a long sword. Another class was the Hoplomachus who fought with a long spear as well as a short sword or dagger; he wore a visored helmet with crest and long greaves over both legs to protect them since he carried only a small shield, usually round.The attacking class was the Provocator was the most heavily armed and the only one who wore a pectoral covering; the extent of the armour hindered the gladiator’s ability to dodge making it slower and agile. However, he was pair with another gladiator to assist him. Battles generally took place on the Roman Forum, until the mid 1st-century BC since there was no permanent amphitheatre. In the imperial period, gladiatorial games were traditionally held twice a year in December and March to mark the end of the year and beginning of spring.Gladiatorial combat involved beast hunting where the Romans had passion for hunting. For fighting beast, Romans preferred big and dangerous animals – bears, bulls, elephants and lions from the far reaches of the Roman Empire. Rarely did the animals survive these hunts though occasionally very few animals survived these hunts and defeat the hunter. Many of wild animals would be slaughter in a day. Usually criminals would battle the animals without weapons or armour and were considered the lowest class of participants in the games.Entry to the games was free. It was seen as a citizen’s right to see the games, not a luxury. However, there was frequently not enough room, leading to angry scuffles outside. Gladiatorial combat can be seen as an education of Roman values, notably, strength, courage, training/discipline, endurance and the contempt o f death. In other words, it demonstrated soldierly values by illustrating military ideas by punishing cowardly gladiators and praising the victors.The games served as a distraction to the general public of Roman society, by entertaining them was shows that kept them in good humour. The spectacles symbolised the emperor’s power, behaved contrary to their nature, such as the lions which allowed the hares to play in their mouths, and could be interpreted as a clear sign that they had been overwhelmed by a force greater than nature, the emperor. During spectacles, execution of criminals were displayed to make it clear that law and order were upheld, and served as a warning to the consequences to any law breakers.The pain inflicted was partnered with the criminal’s suffering served as a social order by degrading the criminal for the public to witness and regarded as someone who arrogates to himself certain rights to which he is not entitled. Additionally, provided excitemen t that the Romans enjoyed – indulging violence, bloodlust and cruelty, this was significant since the citizens of Rome was uneventful the military pursuits and civil war which had kept them entertained were by then over. Whatever happened in the arena, the spectators were on the winning side. They found comfort for death' wrote Tertullian with typical insight, ‘in murder'. Various well know Romans had different attitudes towards the games. Writers like Seneca may have expressed disapproval, but they attended the arena where the games were in process. He described the display as boring and therefore unworthy of the attention of a well-reasoned man. In a letter to a friend, he describes what he saw in the arena during the reign of Emperor Caligula: â€Å"There is nothing so ruinous to good character as to idle away one's time at some spectacle. Vices have a way of creeping in because of the feeling of pleasure that it brings.Why do you think that I say that I personally return from shows greedier, more ambitious and more given to luxury, and I might add, with thoughts of greater cruelty and less humanity, simply because I have been among humans? † Seneca was not alone in his view, Cicero, is widely opposed to gladiatorial games, wrote, â€Å"A gladiatorial show is apt to seem cruel and brutal to some eyes, and I incline to think that it is, as now conducted, but in the days when it was criminals who crossed swords in the death struggled there could be no better schooling against pain and death†.Ultimately, Cicero was not totally opposed to the idea of gladiatorial games but the concept of using free men as gladiators was cruel. The attitudes of high culture Romans, Cicero and Seneca differed to those of the general public. Their opinion on gladiatorial games was that they were flawed and inhumane and disapproved of it. A century and a half later, Pliny the younger too had no taste for the brutalities and viciousness of the gladiatorial shows.In his letter to Sempronius Rufus, he states that he wished that they would be abolished in Tome, as they degrade the character and morals of the whole world. Recommendations were given to soldiers to watch gladiatorial displays to take note of how gladiators fought without fear, because they represented the moral qualities which were required for a good soldier. Victorious gladiators conquered death by displaying his superior over his opponent. Even if the gladiator had to die he died the death of a Roman citizen through the sword.Besides, their lives were seen as models of courage and military discipline. One can conclude that, gladiators were criminals, having lost their citizen rights, who had no choice to become a gladiator, although, some citizens freely accepted being a gladiator for the rewards. The public admired and worshiped gladiators even though they were criminals; they displayed great courage and strength in their battles. It took the public’s minds of t hings providing them with a great spectacle entertained them and taking their minds of other issues.This was extremely popular to the Romans since they enjoyed violence and cruelty. Executions, made upheld Roman law for the public to witness serving as the possible consequences if an individual breached it. Soldiers took note of the valiance and heroism fighting with no fear displaying qualities essentially for any Roman soldier. Thus, gladiatorial combat was a display of nerve and skill which held a lot of importance in the culture and history of Ancient Rome.

A Condition Previously Known As Mental Retardation Education Essay

IntroductionIntellectual disablement ( ID ) , a status antecedently known as mental deceleration, is defined as a disablement characterized by important restrictions both in rational operation and in adaptative behaviour as expressed in conceptual, societal, and practical adaptive accomplishments and that the footing for the disablement has been present prior to age 18 ( AAIDD, 2002 ) . This status affects about 1 % of population ( Bello, Goharpey, Crewther & A ; Crewther, 2008 ) , and has historically been defined as an intelligence quotient ( IQ ) mark of less than 70 ( Schalock & A ; Luckasson, 2004 ) . In recent decennaries, the definition of ID has been revised, which now includes both a step of rational operation and an indicant of persons ‘ adaptative behaviour in their environment. Intelligence refers to individual ‘s overall mental ability or his/her capacity to ground, program, work out jobs, comprehend complex thoughts, and learn ( AAIDD, 2010 ) . The appraisal of rational operation is typically achieved through disposal of intelligence quotient ( IQ ) trial. Most IQ trials are structured in the manner that a mark of 100 is considered mean, with a standard divergence of 15 ( Hourcade, 2002 ) . In agreement to American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities ( AAIDD ) guideline, an rational degree that is considered to be within the scope of rational disablement if it is two or more standard divergences ( SDs ) below the mean ( AAIDD, 2002 ) . In other word, a degree of 70 IQ points or lower will be the cut-off point for ID when utilizing an IQ trial with a mean of 100 and a standard divergence ( SD ) of 15, which account for the lowest hiting 2 % of the normal population ( Flynn, 2000 ) . Adaptive behaviour refers to the aggregations of conceptual, societal, and practical accomplishments that people learn and perform in their mundane lives ( AAIDD, 2002 ) . Similar to the appraisal of rational operation, adaptative behaviour are assessed with instruments which requires detecting the person in state of affairss where these accomplishments are required, or questioning those who know the single well ( Hourcade, 2002 ) . In AAIDD web site, important restrictions in adaptative behaviour are operationally defined as public presentation that is at least two standard divergences below the mean of either ( a ) one of the undermentioned three types of adaptative behaviour: conceptual, societal, or practical, or ( B ) an overall mark on a standardised step of conceptual, societal, and practical accomplishments. In general, persons with ID possess some common features. Typically, persons with ID will larn and develop more easy than a typical individual because of their cognitive restrictions. More frequently, they present with specific it cognitive shortages such as damage in memory, attending, or comprehension of linguistic communication, which frequently result in their lupus erythematosus efficient larning abilities ( Hourcade, 2002 ; Van der Molen, Van Luit, Jongmans, & A ; Van der Molen, 2007 ) . To certain extend, their slower processing, restricted memory or attending can besides associate to their lack in ego control and ordinance, ensuing in feelings that they are more inactive or disengaged from activity ( Linn, Goodman, & A ; Lender, 2000 ) or and more distractible or unprompted than others ( Goodman & A ; Linn, 2003 ) . Therefore, persons with ID frequently require different signifiers and grade of support in the procedure of larning and development.Identification/Diagnosis of ID The standards used for designation and diagnosing of ID have evolved from a long manner. Schalock and Luckasson ( 2004 ) sum up four attacks that have been used to place individuals with ID historically. In the early twenty-four hours, ID was ab initio identifies non establishing on rigorous standards, but on persons ‘ inability to accommodate to their societal environments. The rise of medical theoretical account nevertheless has changed the attack of placing ID. In term, the base of designation was shifted to the individual ‘s symptoms complex and clinical syndromes, with the focal point on the functions of physical causes and heredity. Later, with the rise of psychometric trials, the standard for designation and diagnosing of ID was once more shifted to individual ‘s rational operation. In term, steps obtained from IQ trials are used as ways to specify and sort persons with ID and their badness of ID. The concluding displacement in the standard was to an attack they named as ‘dual-criterion ‘ , where both cognitive operation and adaptative behaviours were included as standards of specifying ID. The dual-criterion attack was foremost introduced by AAIDD ( was so named as AAMR American Association on Mental Retardation ) in 1956 and has been adopted by other diagnostic systems such as the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health ( ICF ; World Health Organization ( WHO ) , 2001 ) , the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th ed. , text rpm ( DSM-IV-TR ; American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ) , and the other clinical guidelines used for prevailing definitions of rational disablements such as the International Classification of Diseases, and Related Health Problems 10th alteration ( ICD-10 ; WHO, 1992 ) ( Schalock & A ; Luckasson, 2004 ) . The current dual-criterion attack of the categorization system besides present a paradigm displacement in the research and instruction pattern, where rational disablement is no longer be viewed as person-centered shortage, i.e. , feature of the persons. Rather, rational disablement is contextually determined and with appropriate supports, life operation of persons with rational disablement may better ( Schalock & A ; Luckasson, 2004 ) . With that, the current AAIDD categorization system emphasizes the importance of contextual support and intercession to turn toing restrictions in the countries of rational and adaptative operation. The AAIDD categorization system is one of the most widely used diagnostic systems in the field of research and instruction designation ( Schalock & A ; Luckasson, 2004 ) . The working definition of ID proposed by AAIDD composes of three key constituents which are besides normally acknowledged by DSM IV-TR and ICF ; 1 ) an IQ mark of less than 70 ; 2 ) an important shortage in adaptative map and 3 ) the oncoming of disablement prior to 18 old ages of age. Within this system, the three required steps for a diagnosing of ID include an IQ trials, adaptative behaviour graduated tables, and documented age of oncoming.Designation of ID in clinical scenesThe term designation here refers to the procedure of appraisal and diagnosing which a formal diagnosing of ID can be arrived if standards are met. As mentioned above, internationally, clinical definitions of ID are normally based on established psychiatric diagnostic systems such as ICD-10, ICF and DSM-IV-TR. As noted by Salvador-Carulla and Bertelli ( 2008 ) , there is small variableness in the standards of the different psychiatric diagnostic systems. Besides turn toing on the age oncoming of the disablement, all these systems portion a common attack, Internet Explorer, the appraisal of the individual should be taken as a whole within the context of the individual ‘s rational capacities and adaptative operation in his environment. Nevertheless, minor differences are still present within some standard among the different diagnostic systems ( Salvador-Carulla & A ; Bertelli, 2008 ) . For case, the cut-off point of the IQ degree ( AAMR: 70-75 ; DSM-IV-TR: 70 ; ICD-10: 69 ) that classify persons as holding marginal rational disablement varies among the three major diagnostic systems. Furthermore, the definition of adaptative accomplishments differs among these systems ( Colmar, Maxwell & A ; Miller, 2006 ) .Designation of ID in educational scenesThe designation of pupils with rational disablement within educational puting evolves parallelly with the alterations in the clinical diagnostic systems of this disablement ( Smith, 1997 ) . Internationally, this revised definition of ID by AAIDD has influenced the development of new categorization system in educational scene. In term, the categorization of ID has moved from a simplistic IQ-based categorization system to a more holistic attack, where a three-step attack is normally accepted as the criterion of categorization ID and explicating support. Ee, Tan and Lim ( 2004 ) sum up the stairss as follow ; 1 ) a formal appraisal of IQ and adaptative map ; 2 ) an analysis of persons in the four dimensions of rational operation and adaptative accomplishments, psychosocial and emotional consideration, physical wellness and etiology, and environmental consideration ; 3 ) depict the profile and strengths of support needed based on the profile. Although the above mentioned system has been acknowledged as a new subject for designation of ID in instruction system, there are still fluctuations in the accent and procedure of placing ID in educational scenes among states. Colmer, Maxwell and Miller ( 2006 ) remark that phenomena such as over-emphasis on IQ mark and concentrating on disablement are still prevailing in educational scenes where cognitive ability is frequently perceived as the base of person ‘s attainment. In Singapore, the guideline for designation of ID is mostly consistent with the diagnostic system of World Health Organization ( WHO ) ( NCSS, 2003 ) , where a formal appraisal of adaptative operation and IQ are necessary when finding the degree of restriction and support needed, with a prevailing inclination to adhere to the traditional categorization system, where the degree of disablement is associated with IQ tonss ( Ee, Tan & A ; Lim, 2004 ) .Educational Placement of pupils with IDThe arrangement of pup ils with ID can be classified into three chief scenes ; viz. mainstream school, particular schools and exterior of the instruction system, i.e. , drop-outs ( Snell, Luckasson, Borthwick-Duffy & A ; et Al, 2009 ) . Snell, Luckasson, Borthwick-Duffy and et Al, ( 2009 ) describe the national tendencies of arrangement for pupils with ID in the USA. Although inclusion pattern has been advocated in the last decennary of twentieth century in the USA, there are still about 50 % of pupils who are diagnosed with ID receive their instructions in separate scene such as particular schools. In add-on, a important proportion of pupils with ID leave school earlier. Cited in Snell, Luckasson, Borthwick-Duffy and et Al, ( 2009 ) , Polloway et Al. ( 2009 ) reported that in the USA, 28.6 % of pupils with rational disablements drop out form schools during the 2002-2003 school twelvemonth. Overall, the per centum of pupils with ID who are to the full included in mainstream schools is still comparatively low, accounted about 11 % in the USA ( Snell, Luckasson, Borthwick-Duffy & A ; et Al, 2009 ) . In Singapore, kids with ID are placed in both particular and mainstream schools, depending on their abilities and demands. Typically, Children with profound disablements and require extended support are enrolled in particular schools, and kids with milder disablements can be found in all degrees of educational systems ( Lim & A ; Nam, 2000 ) . The procedure of appraisal and designation of ID in educational scene is frequently motivated and guided by a primary end of enabling a sound educational arrangement. Traditionally, kids with rational disablements are normally enrolled in particular instruction schools ( MacMillan & A ; Forness, 1998 ) . With the rise of inclusion motion, the educational arrangement of kids with ID varies among states. In Singapore, kids with rational disablements, including those at mild degree are by and large enrolled in particular schools, in which most of them continue and complete their instructions within the particular instruction system ( Ee, Tan & A ; Lim, 2004 ) . Whilst in states such as the USA, where inclusion pattern has started for more than a decennary, more pupils with ID are analyzing in mainstream schools. Based on estimated prevalence rates, it is suspected a ample figure of kids with ID are enrolled in mainstream school ( Ee, Tan & A ; lim, 2004 )Screening of IDIt is recognized that planning and intercession for individualised support for persons with ID are indispensable in the current epoch. In order to program and measure the effectual and rightness of the support service, valid showing and preliminary designation are necessary to ease a formal referral and appraisal, therefore support and intercession. Nevertheless, in contrast to the considerable understanding among professional pedagogues and clinicians as to which guidelines and processs to follow in naming rational disablement, there is no consensus on the formal processs to test ID ( MacMillan & A ; Forness, 1998 ) . As cited in MacMillan and Forness ( 1998 ) , in the USA, most of the pupils with ID are foremost screened and referred by their instructors for formal designation of ID by mental wellness professionals. Similarl y, in Singapore, no formal processs are available when come into the showing of ID. The informal showings of pupils with possible rational disablements are normally done by school instructors. In fact, the procedure of referral for a formal appraisal and diagnosing frequently starts with instructor ‘s observation on pupils ‘ clear and consistent underachievement in their academic work ( Ee, Tan & A ; Lim, 2004 ) . In other word, due to missing of formal guidelines for testing procedure, instructors ‘ cognition and judgement on the pupils ‘ abilities play important functions in the referral and designation procedure. Teachers played a cardinal function in the designation of pupils with particular educational demands and in specifying the degree of support ( LOS ) they required for each pupil ( McKinnon & A ; Cordon, 1998 ) The grounds are described as follow ; foremost, since instructors normally refer pupils after they realize that pupils ‘ public presentations are significantly below the norm. The ‘norm ‘ , i.e. , mean public presentation of the pupil ‘s immediate equals becomes the benchmark for instructors to do determinations for referral. In term, a underachieving pupils will be more likely referred for formal appraisal if he is in a category or school with high-achieving equals, and otherwise less likely to be referred if all his schoolmates are low-achieving. Second, the instructors ‘ relevant cognition on ID and particular demands is besides important in the procedure of testing without a formal showing tool ( MacMillan & A ; Forness, 1998 ) . In such instance, who get referred varies from schoolroom to classroom as some instructors may hold higher tolerance working with academic-weak pupils, and others may hold small capableness in covering with those with troubl e to maintain up with school course of study. The ‘teachers factors ‘ in the procedure of testing for ID and particular demands are even evidenced in X school, where most of pupils are academic under-achievers, with co morbid behavioural and emotional troubles. A determination for referral is frequently less distinct when there are multiple jobs are naming for attending. Therefore, a standardised showing tool may supply a common metric for instructors to establish on when placing pupils necessitating formal appraisal and particular demands. In line with current diagnostic system, a testing tool with focal point on both cognitive ability and adaptative behaviours is necessary when come to a determination for support and arrangement.InclusionThe term inclusion here refers to a pattern that pupils with disablements are integrated into general instruction schoolrooms ( Quah, 2004 ) . In inclusive instruction, persons with disablements study full-time in general instruction schoolrooms. However, necessary supports may be given during their procedure of survey in general instruction schoolrooms ( Quah, 2004 ) . Since the late twentieth century, inclusive instruction has become an international tendency and docket ( Ainscow, Booth & A ; Dyson, 2006 ) . Policies and statute law have been passed in many parts of the universe to advance inclusion in instruction ( Booth, 1999 ; Bricker, 2000 ; Harris & A ; Stephenson, 2003 ; Ainscow, Booth & A ; Dyson, 2006 ) . In response to the displacement in statute law in particular instruction, ( grounds ofmore inclusion of ID in other states ) Inclusion of Down ‘s syndrome in mainstream school is widely accepted in England after more than 20 old ages of inclusion run ( Booth, 1996 ) . Snell, et Al ( 2009 ) more ID pupils are included in regular schools However, non in Singapore, As pointed out by Lim and Nam ( 2000 ) , in Singapore, a double instruction system providing to pupils with and without disablements is still runing. ( Due to miss of preparation for instructors ) Movement towards incorporating pupils with disablements, particularly those with moderate to terrible degree of disablements into regular schools remains slow. Teachers still refer their pupils with ID to particular schools Integrated instruction is an earlier version and refers to giving excess support to pupils with particular demands who are take parting in the mainstream course of study without major restructuring of content or bringing ( Booth, 1996 ) . . However, the tendency of inclusion has besides been accepted by society and school forces. Programs and services have been put frontward to ease the inclusion of pupils with physical disablements and autism ( Lim & A ; Nam, 2000 ) . ( Add more from LIM and NAM ) Although inclusive instruction is accepted as an international tendency for persons with disablements, surveies have revealed assorted consequences of benefits and jobs. Harmonizing to Wong ( 2002 ) , research surveies on inclusive instruction by and large suggest an betterment in societal accomplishments and community integrating after arrangement in mainstream school. Whilst, there are besides concerns that inclusion was damaging to run intoing the demands of some pupils if the adaptation of course of study is non tally with their cognitive abilities. In his survey on parents ‘ perceptual experience on inclusion pattern in Hong Kong, Wong ( 2002 ) studies that pupils with disablements face enormous trouble in run intoing academic demands in school, which impose obstructions for their effectual acquisition. ( ? Benefit related to Severity of ID or degree of support needed )Multi-cultural issues in showing and designationThere is ever concern that cultural minorities are falsel y identified as being rational disable. In order to turn to this concern, MacMillon et Al, ( 1996, as cited in MacMillon and Forness, ( 1998 ) ) investigate the presence of systemic differences among referred Caucasian, Hispanic and African American pupils in California. Their findings suggested that the Verbal and Performance IQ of Caucasic pupils are higher than African American pupils, taking to a plausible decision that schools are unwilling to mistake in mentioning minority pupils.History of instruction for kids with ID in SingaporeLack of preparation on particular instruction among instructors